CHAPTER II
LITERATUR REVIEW OF RELATED
A. Theoretical Description
Every research
ha theories to explain meaning, concept or information about the research.
Below is the theoretical description of this research.
1. Speaking
a. The Definition of Speaking
Especially
definition of teaching speaking in junior high school is students can express
the meaning of transactional (to get things done) and interpersonal
conversation (socialization) to express admiration. Also, students can express
the meaning of oral short text functional, make it simple to interact to the
other people.[1]
So, the researcher concluded definition of speaking in junior high school is
students can express feeling, idea, say of congratulation in real life to other
people, and also we ca interact to other people.
10
Speaking should
be thought as it is used in real life. Where people use it for communication to
express feeling, idea, and emotion. In speaking the researcher can take and
gave the information from speaker. Hornby’s dictionary explained that,
“teaching is work of teacher.”[2]
Further, “speaking is the ability to speak fluency presupposes not only
knowledge of language features, but also the ability to process information and
language “on the spot”.[3]
Also, “speaking is the productive skill and consists of producing systematic
verbal utterances to convey meaning”. [4]
So, the researcher concludes, teaching speaking is expressing meaning in transactional
and interpersonal conversation to express administration and congratulation, it
simple to interact to other people and than students can express the meaning of
short text functional to interact to other people.
b. The Purpose of the Speaking
People speak because they want to say something and
interact to others. As we know, human are social creature because they cannot
live alone, the need others’ help so that they want to live together. The way
is by making interaction each other. Interaction will happen if people
communicate with others and they only one of the way is by speaking.
Further, when people are speaking, they have the purpose certainly,
such as for giving information, expressing ideas, opinions, feelings, retelling
stories, giving commands, making jokes, complaining about something, and so on.
It means that they are many purposes when someone was speaking, but it is to
communicate with others basically and it is depends on someone personal.
Speaking is used for many different purposes, and each
purpose involves different skills. The ability to speak a second or foreign
language well is a very complex task if we try to understand the nature of what
appears to be involved. When we used casual conversation, for example, our
purposes may be to make social contact with people to establish rapport, or to
engage in the harmless chitchat that occupies much of the time we spend with
friends.[5]
c. The Process of Speaking
The process of
speaking there are three phases, they are: pre-speaking phase, during speaking
phase, and post speaking phase.
1.
The first pre-speaking phase. Pre-speaking begins before real speaking
takes place. Students’ experiences, observations, and interactions inside and
outside of the classroom have a impact upon what they say and how they say it.
Pre-speaking activities involve thought and reflection, and provide
opportunities for students to plan and organize their ideas for speaking.
2.
The second phase is during speaking phase. In this phase, students who
have been supported collaboratively are more likely to have confidence to go
public whit their ideas and information. In order to communicate and interact
whit other, students need to engage in
variety of formal and informal speaking situations, depending upon their
purpose for speaking.
3.
The third is post speaking phase. It is important to have students
reflect upon their performance. Students who have opportunities to reflect upon
their speaking experiences, whit the availability of well-designed criteria,
grow in their abilities to speak effectively and the opportunity of improvement
is very strong. When students reflect upon their performance, the begin to
recognize what they have done well and what they have not. Being able to assess
their performance, students can design new media for improvement.[6]
Base on the explanation above, the researcher can
concluded that the process of speaking there are three phases, they are
pre-speaking phase, during speaking phase, and post speaking phase.
d. The Types of Speaking
According to Browns’ book, there are two types of oral
language, as follow:
1)
Monologue
Brown state that
monologue is the speaking where one speaker uses spoken language for any length
of time, such us in speeches, lectures, readings, news broadcasts, and the
like, then the listener have to process the information without interruption
and the speech will go on whether or not the listener comprehends what the
speaker mean.[7]
So the researcher can concluded that monologue is the speaking where one
speaker uses spoken language is the speaking where one speaker uses spoken
language, then the listener have two process the information without
interruption and the speech will go on whether or not the listener comprehends
what the speaker mean.
2)
Dialogue
It is different
whit monologue. Nunan says that dialogue is the speaking that involves two or
more speakers. The interruption may happen in the speech when the interlocutor
does not comprehend what the speaker say. In each case, participant may have a
good background knowledge, therefore, the familiarity of the interlocutors will
produce conversation whit more assumption, implication, and other meanings
hidden. The dialoge consist of two types, they are social relationship
(interpersonal), and factual information (transactional). So the researcher can
conclude that the dialogue is where speakers involves two or more speaker, the
interruption may happen in the speech when the intrculator dose not comprehension
what the speaker say.
So, it can be
concluded that two kinds of speaking they are monologue and dialogue. Here are
the researcher takes one of kinds of speaking is dialogue.
e.
Teaching Speaking With Video
According to harmer in Arum Mustika wati purposes two
video based activities which can be used in video based lessons. One of them is
video watching activities. A number of activities are designed for specific
video situation. Video activities include three sections as follow:[8]
1)
General Comprehension
The activities in this section is designed to have
students to watch video in order to understand the gist of video and then look
back again for detail. in this activity, students have to try and give as many
as information about what they have seen. Then, in pairs, they have to agree on
everything they heard and saw. when the
discussion has been finished, the teacher read out question and the
students have to write the answer. After that, they compare with other pairs
whether they all agree. They watch the video again to check the answer.
2) Working with
Aspect of Language
The activity in this section shows the unique language
work to the medium of video, a way of greeting students in monolingual groups
to focus on language is to get hold of English language video which had
subtitles in students’ language. The teacher can start by viewing the video
without sounds and discussing.
3) Video as
springboard to creativity
How video help to start the students creativity showed
in the activity of this section by encouraging interpretation, provoking
thought, and asking for language use. in this activity, the students watch
video and the teacher make sure that they understand it.
f. How to Teach Speaking
When teaching young learners we
constantly have to keep in mind the fact that what we have in front of us is a
mixed class with varied abilities, expectations, motivation level , knowledge and last but not
least, different learning styles. Thus, we need to vary our approaches and
offer as much opportunity as possible to make the whole class find a little
something to hold on to, expand and grow.[9]
Young learners are like sponges, they
soak up every things we say and how we say it. Thus clear and correct
pronunciation is of vital importance, since younglearners repeat exactly what
they hear. What has been learned at an early stage is difficult to change later
on. One rule that applied here is slowly and steadily through constant revision
and recycling. With the help of mixed activities, such as dialogues, chants, songs,
poems and rhymes, students speaking abilities grow, their pronunciation gets
better and their awareness of the language
improves.
When applying video techniques in classroom it may help the learner to develop
their speaking skill and we have keep in mind that interaction and dissection
is importance way in learning. Therefore, increased oral emphasis should be
included in our teaching to give the students as much speaking time as possible.
g. Speaking Evaluation
Brown stated “A test is a method of measuring a
person’s ability or knowledge in a given domain.”. it means that, test is used
to measure students’ achievement. Some important points in testing speaking are
knowing the students’ proficiency level.
The students of grade VIII SMP Negeri 5 Padangsidimpuan are the intermediate
categories students. It was based on their speaking achievement that was
observed by researcher and also the degree of study.
A test has the purpose of measuring, it measures a
person’s ability or knowledge and competence. Finally, a test measure a given
domain .
There are two criteria for a testing a test:
1) Practically:
A good test is practical. It is within the means of financial limitations, time
constrain, case of administration, scoring, and interpretation.
2) Reliability:
A reliable test in consistent and dependable. If you give the some test
the the some subject on two different accasions, the test
itself should get similar result, and it should have test reliability.
The researcher
will give oral test to measure students’ achievement. B knight describe the
oral test is a fascinating workshop in which teachers inventigate how to
measure students’ speaking skill. That is all to know how far students’
achievement after giving the explanation about the material.
Then, Arthur Hughes explains that there are five
categories to measure speaking skill as the following.[10]
a.
Accent
The tern accent is “used to refer to the speech of
someone who speaks a language non-natively.”[11]
The students’ accent can be know from their speech and how the pronounce the
words.
Furthermore, Arthur Hughes Stated that Accent can be
identified looks like this:
a)
Pronunciation frequently
unentiteligible.
b)
Frequent gross errors and a very
heavy accent make understanding difficult.
c)
“Foreign Accent” requires
concentrated listening and mispronunciation lead to occasional misunderstanding
and apparent errors in grammar or vocabulary.
d)
Market “foreign Accent” and
occasional mispronunciation, which do not interfere with understanding.
e)
No conspicuous mispronunciation,
but would not be taken for a native speaker.
f)
Native pronunciation, with no
trace of foreign accent.[12]
so base on the
Arthur hughes statement it can be conclude that the students speech and the
pronunsiation the word include the Accent.
b. Grammar
According to Cambridge Encyclopedia “Grammar deal
with the abstract system of result in terms of which a person’s mastery of this
native language can be explained. [13]
In addition grammar also refers to the students’ achievement or arrange the
words into a good sentence.
Furthermore, Arthur Hughes stated that grammar can
be identified looks like this:
a)
Grammar almost entirely
inaccurate phrase.
b)
Constant errors showing of very
few major patterns and frequently preveting communication.
c)
Frequent errors showing some
major patterns uncontrolled and causing occasional irritation and
misunderstanding.
d)
Occasional errors showing
imperfect control of some patterns but not weakness that causes
misunderstanding
e)
Few errors, with not pattern of
failure.
f)
No more than two errors during
the interview.
Base on the Arthur Hughes statement it means that the students achepment or
arange a word into a good sentence can be identifying from accurate phrase,
constant error, prequent error, occasional error, and few error.
c. Vocabulary
Nunan states “vocabulary is more that a list of
target language of words”.[14] A
spoken word is sound or sequence of sound, with communicate those “ideas”
precisely, a speaker should express them with precise words rather than general
words. In addition, vocabulary refers to the students achievement to build up
the words using some relate vocabularies.
Furthermore, Arthur Hughes stated that vocabulary
can be identified looks like this:
a)
Vocabulary inadequate for even the simplest conversation.
b)
Vocabulary limited to basic
personal and survival areas (time, food, transportation, family).
c)
Choice of words some time
inaccurate, limitations of vocabulary prevent discussion of some common
professional and social topics.
d)
Professional vocabulary adequate
to discuss special interest: general vocabulary permits discussion on any
non-technical subject with some circumlocution.
e)
Professional vocabulary broad and
precise; general vocabulary adequate to
cope with complex practical problems and varied social situations.
f)
Vocabulary apperently as accurate and extensive as an of the
educated native speaker.[15]
In conclution the adentification base on Arthur hughes
can be use to correct students acceapment in beelup the word.
d. Fluency
Nunan states “Fluency is the extent to which speaker
use the language quickly and confidently, with few hesitations or unnatural
pauses, false starts and words
searches.[16]
Furthermore, Arthur Hughes stated that fluency can be identified looks like this:
a)
Speech is no halting and fragmentary
that conversation is virtually imposible.
b)
Speech is very slow and uneven except for short or routine
sentence.
c)
Speech is frequently hesithan and
jerky: sentence may be left uncompleted.
d)
Speech is occasionally hesitant,
with some unevenness caused by rephrasing and grouping for words. Speech is
effortless and smooth, but perceptibly non-native in speed and evenness.
e)
Speech is effortless and smooth,
but perceptibly, non-native in speed and evenness.
f)
Speech all professional and
general topic as effortless and smooth as a native speaker.[17]
Based on the
Arthur Hughes statement about the fluency of speaking above, the researcher
concluded that the fluency is the speed and the confidence of the speaker.
e. Performance/Comprehention
Performance is the capacity for understanding ideas,
fact, and so on. Performance in think aloud technique capture preference data
simultaneously rather than having to ask preferences questions later. Then,
think aloud in performance may help some participants focus by falling of
working and talking.
Moreover, Arthur Hughes stated that performance can
be identified looks like this:
a)
Understands too title for the
simplest types of conversation.
b)
Understand only slow, very simple
speech on common social and touristic topics, requires constant repetition and
rephrasing.
c)
Understands careful, some what
simplified speech when engaged in a dialogue, but may require considerable
repetition and rephrasing.
d)
Understands quite well normal
educated speech when engaged in a dialogue, but require occasional repetition
conversation or rephrasing.
e)
Understanding everything in
normal educated conversation except for very colloquial or low frequency items,
or exceptionally rapid or slurred speech
f)
Understands everything in both formal and
colloquial speech to be expected of an educated native speaker.
Base on the
Arthur Hughes statement about the comprehension of speaking above, the
researcher concluded that the comprehension is the the important characteristic
of the teaching speaking.
2. Video
a. Definition of video
Video is a recording of moving visual image made
digitally or an videotape. According to Smaldino Video is one of the
technological aids that use in the classroom nowadays.[18]
Video is an extremely use media which incorporates a wide variety at visual
element and a great range of audio experiences in additional to spoken language.
It means that video is media that consist of visual and audio visual. It means
in teaching speaking we can use video to make students not bored and like to
study English language.
When used in the right time and the right place, video
is very helpful in teaching speaking. According to Richards & Renandya in
Faisal Mustafa journal “video is an ‘extremely dense’ medium, in which there
are combinations of visual elements, sound effects, and audio”.[19]Teacher
can create the controlled situation in the video related to the material and
the students can understand it from the visual and audio of the video
When used in the right time and the right place, video
is very helpful in teaching speaking. Katchenreported that “carefully chosen
films could be a useful and extremely motivational teaching tool for both
practicing listening skills and stimulating speaking and writing.” Similarly,
the essence of great speeches imparted in videos accelerates the learning
process in public speaking.[20]
So, the video is taking a lot of functions in language teaching learning.
In terms of the speech theory to be learned, video can
create a solid link between them and their practical application.[21]
The video can shows the simulated situations from the real application of
speaking. It helps students increase the ability in speaking based on the
appropriate context or situations. In conclusion, the video is very helpful in
language teaching learning.
b.
Types of video
There are some types of video which are can used by the teacher in
helping students’ speaking. According to Harmer, there three types of video:
1.
Off- air programs
Off-air programs are programs which are recorded from a television
channels. The programs should be engaging for the students. Some off-air video
is very difficult to understand for the students in certain level. It is
because of a high preponderance of slang or regional vernacular in some videos.
2.
Real-word video
The teachers and students can use published video type materials such as
feature film, exercise ‘manuals’ wildlife documentaries, or comedy that there
are no copyright for using the video. However, the length of the extract and
the comprehensibility should be considered.
3.
Language Learning Video
Language learning videos are videos which are used to accompany course
book. The advantage is they have been designed with students at a particular
level in mind. Meanwhile, the disadvantages are they will fail the quality test
if the production is poor, the situation and language are in authentic, or the
content is too unsophisticated.[22]
From the explanations above, there are many types of video that is
appropriates in the teaching and learning process is language learning video.
These types of video are designed to accompany course book. Therefore, it is
more contextualize and engage students’ interest.
c.
The advantage
of using video
There are many advantages of using video in language teaching learning. According
to a summary of research and educator survey, educational television and videos
has many benefits such as:
1)
Reinforce reading and lecture material
2)
Aid in the development of a common base of knowledge
among students
3)
Enhance student comprehension and trigger important
discussions
4)
Provide greater accommodation of diverse learning
styles
5)
Increase student motivation and enthusiasm
6)
Lastly, promote teacher effectiveness.[23]
Another important goal of video
implementation is to have students witness a speech aimed at a more diverse
audience and with more real-world relevance rather than public speaking in a
classroom environment aimed often at a rather narrow audience.[24]it
means that the video is important to help the public speaking
In terms of cognitive aspects, videos
can help improve students’ curiosity, providingup-to-date information,
maximizing abilities to infer from contexts, developing skills such as motor
skills, information and research skills as well as communication skills.[25]
In other words, the video will shows the
real model of many situations that students can experience and feel without
going there. For example, the students do not have to visit America just to
know how American people order coffee in the café.
3.
The Procedure
Of Video
There
are many effective ways to use a video in teaching speaking process. According
to Noriko
Ishihara and Julie C. Chi:[26] one of the effective ways to use video in teaching
speaking process must be included of the 3 activities above. They are
Pre-viewing, While-viewing, and Post-viewing.”
These are the
procedures:
a)
Pre-viewing Activities
1)
Students should be prepared the vocabulary as much as possible in
context of the topic or the scene from the conversation video.
2)
Teacher shows the tittle or the topic from the video, then giving short
description about the scene from the conversation video.
b)
While-viewing Activities
1)
Students should be divided into pairs.
2)
Teacher asks the pairs watch the video carefully and analyze the
vocabulary what come up in the video and it pronunciation.
3)
Teacher asks the students to prepare the “students note” which is
consisted of the important idea from the scene.
4)
Teacher plays the video
c)
Post-viewing Activities
1)
Teacher asks the students to create the similar situation from the scene
of the video.
2)
Teacher asks the students to make a conclusion and they need to share it
with the class.
Base on the procedures by Noriko Ishihara and
Julie C. Chi above, the
researcher will be use the procedure. the reason because the speaking steep in
procedure is most specific to teach speaking use video media.
4. Review of Related Findings
Research is the
study about certain object to field out facts about it. There have been many
researcher done regard to thus research problem writing skill improvement. They
are shown the present related elements with the research topic in order that
researcher here needs to conduct another research to complete an empty side of
the research focus the related findings.
Firstly, is a
script from Esti Ermawati.
STKIP PGRI Sumatera Barat.With the title of thesis “Using Video to Improve the Speaking Skill of The Students of The Fourth
Grade of SengonElementari School “the kind of research
is Experimental Study. Research found that Media Videoin teaching students’ Speaking skill is effective.[27]
Secondly, is a
script from GilanAlanferdika
Makassar MuhammadiyahUniversity. With the title thesis “ Improving the Speaking Skill of Grade VIII Students of
SMPN 2 DepokThrugh the Use of Video” the kind of research
is classroom action research. Research found that the speaking mastering of achieved
by usingVideo.[28]
The third, is a
script from Pruceia Kumara
Silva.with
title the thesis “ Improving
Speaking Skill TroughVideo of the Eight Grade Students of SMP IT Abu Bakar
Yogyakarta “. The kind of research is experimental research.
Research found that Speaking mastering achieved by using Video.[29]
The forth, is a
script from M DhoniPerdana.
UIN Suska Riau with title the thesis “Using Video as Learning Media to Improve the Speaking Skils of Grade
VIII Students of SMPN 2 LawangKidul” the researcher found
that there is an effect of Improve
Speaking Skill By using Video.[30]
The fifth,
is script from DanisiaPujiWahyuni. With the title the thesis “Improving
Speaking Skills of the Seventh Grade of SMP N 1 MlatiSlemanThrough the Use of
Video. The researcher found that this media effective to Improve Speaking Skills.[31]
5. Conceptual Framework
Conceptual framework was necessary used to show a
certain assumption about research topic in order to arrange or organize the
research problem, resolution and its evidence criteria. speaking problem that
lack of self- confidence on this research come from intrinsic and extrinsic
factors which have influence on students speaking.
Because of that, researcher want to accomplish video
media to speaking asking and giving information during English learning to
improve students’ speaking ability. After concluding, speaker would do
reflection to analyze what will have been happened in the classroom whether
text improves or does not. if there will a students’ speaking ability staying
in low, researcher re-conducts the second and the next by considering the
influential factors to be eliminated so that speaking ability will be achieve
comprehensively.
Figure 1.1
Framework ofClassroom Action Research
[1] Mukarto,
et.all, English on sky 2 for junior high
school students year VIII, (Jakarta: Erlangga, 2006)
[2] A.S
Hornby, Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, (New
York: Oxford University Press, 2008)p.271
[3] Jeremi
Harmer, The Practice Of English Language
Teaching, (London: Longman, 2001), p. 269
[4] David
Nunan, Practical English Language
Teaching, (Singapore: Mc. Graw Hill,2003), p. 48
[5]Hasibuan.,P.
[6]Jehad
Mahmoud Ashour, “ The Effect Of Using A Videoconferencing-Based Strategy On
Unrwa 9 Graders’ English Speaking Skill And Their Attitudes Towards Speaking”
(Thesis: The Islamic University Of Gaza, May, 2014), P.77-86
[7]H.
Dougles Brown, Teaching By Principle An Interactive Approach To Language
Pedagogy (New Jersy: Englewood Cliffs,2001), p.236-237
[8]Arum
Mustikawati, “The Effectivenes Of Using Video In Teaching Speaking For The
Eighth Grade Students Of SMP N 1 Manisrenggo” (Yogyakarta State University,
2013), uny.ac.id.
[9] Klancar, N. I, Developing speaking skills in the young
learners’ classroom, (2006), p. 20. from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Klancar-Speaking
Skills.html.
[10]Arthur Huges, Testing For
Language Teacher, (USE: Cambridge University press, 1990), p.110-1023
[11]Nirmala Sari, An Introduction to Linguistic, (Jakarta:
Departement Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1988),p.138
[12]Arthur Huges,p. 110
[13]Crystal, D., The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, (Cambridge:
Cambridge University press,1995),p.5
[14]David
Nunan, practice language…,p.258
[15]Arthur
huge, testing for…., p.110
[16]David
Nunan, practice language…,p.55
[17]Arthur
huge, testing for…, p.111
[18] Smaldino
, ‘Instructional Technology And Media For Learning’’. Cambridge: Cambridge University press. (2007), p.23
[19]Faisal Mustafa Et Al., “The Application Of Video Clips With
Small Group And Individual Activities To Improve Young Learners ’ Speaking
Performance,” Teaching English with
Technology 17, no. 4 (2017): 28.
[20]Yow-jyy
Joyce Lee and Jung-chin Liang, “Using Video Technology to Diagnose EFL Students
’ Cognitive Learning Difficulties in Public Speaking” 64 (2012): 672,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.079.
[21]Lee
and Liang, “Using Video Technology to Diagnose EFL Students ’ Cognitive
Learning Difficulties in Public Speaking.”
[22]Prucesia
Kumara Silva, “Improving Students’ Speaking Skills through the Use of Video
Clips of the Eight Grade Students of Smp It Abu Bakar Yogyakarta in the
Academic Year of 2012/2013,” 2013,p.29 http://eprints.uny.ac.id/id/eprint/22501.
[23]Lee
and Liang, “Using Video Technology to Diagnose EFL Students ’ Cognitive
Learning Difficulties in Public Speaking.”
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.079
[24]Lee
and Liang.
[25]mustafa
Et Al., “The Application Of Video Clips With Small Group And Individual
Activities To Improve Young Learners ’ Speaking Performance.”
[26]Noriko
Ishihara and Julie C Chi, “Authentic Video in The Beginning ESOL Classroom:
Using a Full-Length Feature Film for Listening and Speaking Strategy Practice,”
English Teaching Forum2 42, no. 01
(2004): 30–35,
http://www.geocities.ws/mhdrba/authentic_video_in_the_beginning.htm.
[27]Ermawati,
“Using Video Clips To Improve The Speaking Skills Of The Students Of The Fourth
Grade Of Sengon Elementary School 3 (Ses 3) In The Academic Year Of 2011/2012.”
[28]Gilang
Alanferdika, “Improving The Speaking Skill Of Grade Viii Students Of Smpn 2
Depok Through The Use Of Video Clips In The Academic Year Of 1013/2014,” 2014.
[29]Silva,
“Improving Students’ Speaking Skills through the Use of Video Clips of the
Eight Grade Students of Smp It Abu Bakar Yogyakarta in the Academic Year of
2012/2013.”
[30]M
Dhoni Perdana, Using Video Clips As
Learning Media To Improve The Speaking Skills Of Grade Viii Students Of Smpn 2
Lawang Kidul In The Academic Year Of 2013/2014, 2014.
[31]Danisia
Puji Wahyuni, “Improving Speaking Skills Of The Seventh Grade Students Of Smp N
1 Mlati, Sleman, Through The Use Of Video Clips In The Academic Year Of
2013/2014,” 2014.
